Biofuels from Lignocellulosic Biomass

Abstract Biomass feedstock, which is mainly lignocellulose, has considerable potential to contribute to the future production of biofuels and to the mitigation of carbon dioxide emissions. Several challenges exist in the production, harvesting, and conversion aspects of lignocellulose, and these must be resolved in order to reach economic viability. A broad array of research projects are underway to address the technical hurdles, however, additional research may be required to reach commercial sustainability. Gasification and enzymatic hydrolysis are the main technologies being investigated for the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into material for the production of biofuels. While each approach has pros and cons, both are being explored to determine the optimum potential commercial method for particular feedstock situations, and to better understand the requirements for the massive scale required to contribute to biofuel volume. Keywords Lignocellulosic biomass · Biofuels · Syngas · Enzymatic hydrolysis · Pretreatment · Fermentation · Gasification

1 Introduction
As the world population increases from the current 6.7 billion to over 8 billion by 2030 [1], and supporting economic growth expands, energy consumption is projected to increase by 42% to 695 quadrillion(1015 ) British thermal units (Btu, 1 Btu = 1055 joule) in 2030 [2]. Most of the required energy will still be acquired from fossil fuels, with around 6% being from nuclear sources and about 8% from other renewable energy sources. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission from such widespread industrial consumption of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) is
D. Wang (B) Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA e-mail: dwang@ksu.edu

likely to continue to be a major contributor to anthropogenic greenhouse gases [3, 4]. Mitigation of CO2 -based contributions to the global warming process requires specific actions, including capture and sequestration of CO2 during the consumption of fossil fuels and expanded utilization of carbon-neutral and carbon negative renewable energy sources (wind, solar, nuclear, geothermal, and various biomass sources) [3–6]. Most of the types of renewable energy (wind, solar, etc.) can be utilized to generate electricity, but not liquid transport fuels. Consequently, biomass has received much attention as a feedstock for biofuels, both in the existing commercial industry (e.g. ethanol from grains or sugar) and in the research realm where lignocellulose is the current focal feedstock material [7–11]. To avoid confusion, we adapt the common definition for biomass and biofuels as follows: • Biomass: Organic, non-fossil materialof biological origin (plant parts including grains, tubers, stems/leaves, roots/tubers, agricultural residues, forest residues, animal residues, and municipal wastes arising from biological sources) potentially constituting a renewable energy source (basically originating from primary capture of solar energy). • Lignocellulosic biomass: Organic material derived from biological origin which has a relatively high content of lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, and pectin combined into a molecular matrix with a relatively low content of monosaccharides, starch, protein, or oils. Typically refers to plant structural material with high cell wall content. Sometimes referred to as “cellulosic” biomass, which is technically inaccurate, but is (mis)used due to the typical 40%+ cellulose content in lignocellulose. • Biofuels: Liquid fuels and blending components produced from biomass (plant) feedstocks, used primarily for transportation. Technically, biogas (e.g. methane from anaerobic digestion of biological residues) is a “biofuel” but tends to be utilized in stationary combustion units and is typically referred to separately as biogas. Survey reports suggest that the annual world biomass yield contains sufficient inherent energy to contribute 20–100% of the world’s total annual energy consumption of 500 EJ (1 EJ = 1 × 1018 Joule), with annual and regional variations [4, 10, 12]. Currently, commercial biofuels are generated from harvestable components of known crops (starch, sucrose, and oils), while a relatively small amount of the lignocellulosic biomass is used for combustion(cooking/heating fires or cofiring to create steam for electricity generation). The large potential of lignocellulose as an energy feedstock remains to be utilized, and is dependent on the development of economic, sustainable production, and processing systems [11]. Two platforms have been set up to transform the energy in lignocellulosic biomass into liquid fuels or chemicals: the sugar platform and thermochemical platform. In the sugar platform, the lignocellulosic material is first pre-treated to facilitate separation into the major components, then the polymeric celluloses and hemicelluloses are enzymatically hydrolyzed into sugars (hexoses and pentoses), after which these sugars can be fermented into biofuels or converted into other valuable intermediate chemicals. The residual lignin may be utilized as a specialty



intermediate or, more commonly, is combusted for heat or power. In the thermochemical platform, biomass is degraded into small gas molecules (hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) under high temperature and certain pressure conditions, then these gas molecules are converted chemically or biologically into Fischer-Tropsch (FT) liquid fuel, alcohols, or other intermediate chemicals. This chapter focuses on the processes, potential, and challenges associated with each of these platforms.

2 Background Research 2.1 Natural Resource Limitation and Economic Security
Although the potential adverse environmental effects of CO2 emission is a major factor pressuring governments to steer theirenergy policy away from fossil fuels, the global decline of fossil fuel reserves is also a major driver for public and private organizations around the world to develop technologies to use renewable energy sources. Various estimates exist for the current proved reserves (Rp), and the Rp:consumption ratio (Rp:c), with units of years. For example, the global Rp:c of coal, oil, and natural gas have been estimated as 140, 40, and 60 [3, 13]. Using the widely-recognized global energy database provided in the British Petroleum (BP) energy report [14], we calculated Rp:c for coal, oil and natural gas as 133, 35, and 60, respectively. For coal and natural gas, the Rp:c value is similar to the previously published estimates and indicates that issues may arise later in this century. However, for oil, our Rp:c value of 35 (years) is even less than that published previously, indicating a serious situation with near-term pressure building to replace oil reserves either with new discoveries (perhaps some, but unlikely to be major) or with new alternatives (biofuels can play a role). The earliest fuel ethanol production from lignocellulose biomass began in Germany, in 1920s [15], using sulfuric acid to hydrolyze wood. The ethanol yield was low at approximately 75–130 L (20–34 gallons) of ethanol per ton of wood hydrolyzed. From 1945 to1960s, several acid-hydrolysis ethanol plants were built in Europe, the USA, and the former Soviet Union. The capacities of these plants ranged from 10,000 to 45,000 tons of wood materials a year. Ethanol yield reached 190–200 L (50–53 gallons) per ton ofwood. Subsequently, almost all of these woodbased ethanol plants were closed due to competition from the rapid development of the petroleum industry and relatively inexpensive crude oil feedstock. The first gasification of biomass can be dated back to the 1800s, when wood was gasified to generate “town gas” for lighting and cooking. Although there are around 140 large gasification facilities in operation around the world today [16], these gasifiers are basically used to generate heat and/or electricity from coal (55% of total 140 large gasification facilities), oil, or natural gas, with a few plants using residues from the wood/pulp industry. The current main products generated from gasifier syngas are power (18%), chemicals (44%), and FT fuel (38%) [16]. Todate, there are no commercial scale gasification or pyrolysis facilities dedicated for


biofuels production from lignocellulosic biomass. However, many research units have been built to investigate the mechanism, kinetics, and economical feasibility of biofuel production via syngas from biomass gasification.

2.2 Limitation of Mainstream Agricultural Crops for Biofuels
In recent years, fuel ethanol production has been revived for use in gasoline transport fuel markets. The main driver for fuel ethanol expansion use has been the need for a gasoline oxygenate, following the issues that were uncovered concerning the previous widespread petroleum industry oxygenate, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). Ethanol is biologically safer, biodegradeable, renewable, and carries 88% more oxygen than MTBE(especially useful in the higher compression modern gasoline engines). A secondary, but nonetheless important, driver for ethanol expansion has been to reduce dependence on foreign oil for those countries that import large volumes of crude oil. The success of ethanol to-date has relied on the harvested portions of mainstream agricultural crops, where modern-technology yield increases have allowed increasing harvest volumes [17]. The global production of crop-based renewable ethanol is projected at around 20 billion gallons (77 B liters) for 2008. Figure 1 shows the breakdown by country and main feedstock. In Brazil, fuel ethanol displaces 20–50% of the transportation petroleum gasoline, with the volume depending on the world price of sugar. Projections are for additional areas to be planted with sugarcane to meet the demand for sugar and fuel, and there are plans to utilize more biotechnology to increase

Fig. 1 Estimates of fuel ethanol for 2008, based on production year-to-date and data sourced from the Renewable Fuel Association, USDA-FAS, and StrathKirn Inc.; RoW – Rest of the world


sugarcane yields by over 10% [2]. The fuel ethanol industry in the USA has grown rapidly since 2000, with over 95% of the ethanol being blended into gasoline as an oxygenate (called E10). Current 2008 production is uncertain due to the volatile economy and sharp commodity fluctuations; however, we project the final volume to be around 9.6 billion gallons (equal to about 7% of the US gasoline volume). The majority of the feedstock for US ethanolis corn (maize) grain, with a small amount ( 4%) being generated from sorghum. Unlike sugarcane, which cannot be stored and for which the mills must close for several months each year, grains are easily stored for over a year and can be managed and transported in the existing infrastructure. Another advantage of grains is that only the starch is consumed in ethanol fermentation. The protein and oil are carried through in the distillers grains (DG) and are available to go back into the livestock feed system. Nevertheless, there will be an upper limit on the land and farm resources that can be used for grain-based ethanol before impacting other commodity food markets (e.g. today the amount of grain exported from the US is about the same as that used for ethanol). Some analysts suggest that there is an impact today, others project that the maximum amount of corn that can be used for ethanol production is approximately 25–30% of the annual corn production [12]. We estimate that the upper limit will depend on how fast the expected biotechnology-driven yield increase is achieved [11, 17]. For example, we can calculate the mathematical outcome for various scenarios: • Yield is somehow frozen today at 12 B bushels grain. E10 (oxygenate additive value) used in all US gasoline would require 15 B gal ethanol = 5 B bu grain. This would require 41% of the current corn harvest. However, 30% of that goes back into the feed system as DG so the net utilization is 29% of the available corn grain. • Yields are projected to continue to increase due to various new technologies, with someindustry experts projecting 300 bu/acre in 10–15 years: this would generate 24 B bu grain. Again assuming E10 use at 15B gal ethanol = 5 B bu grain, this would result in only 20% of the crop harvest being taken in. Accounting for the DG return, the net corn grain use would be 14%. In reality, there are many factors which will impact the final scenario. Irrespective of the exact scenario, it seems that corn grain can provide for existing market demands plus enough grain for future oxygenate use (e.g. E10). While this is an excellent contribution, it does not meet requirements for majority replacement of gasoline volume. Obviously, to achieve further energy independence and further reduce import of foreign oil, additional renewable feedstocks are required to contribute to the total liquid fuel demand.

3 Potential of Lignocellulosic Biomass
A 2005 USDA and DOE joint report [12] showed that a combination of crops, agricultural residues, trees, forest residues, and bringing conservation reserve land into production could generate up to 1.3 billion dry tons of biomass each year. Given




the assumptions regarding a viable conversion process, the energy inherent in this biomass could produce enough biofuels to replace 30–50% of the annual transportation gasoline in US. Thus, biomass represents considerable potential as a feedstock for biofuels, which is reflected in the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) contained in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 [18]. Specific targets are mandated for lignocellulosic-derived ethanol in the RFS: the initialgoal is 0.1 billion gallons by 2010, with increasing milestone targets that reach 16 billion gallons by 2020. The RFS also calls for 15 billion gallons of ethanol from grain, and the mandate then caps that volume from 2015 onwards [2]. Thus, corn and lignocellulosic ethanol plants will coexist and since there are common processes on the back-end, it is possible that integrated biorefineries (Fig. 2) may emerge to handle both starch and lignocellulosic feedstocks. The integration of cellulosic and traditional dry grind ethanol plants may reduce the per gallon capital investment of lignocellulosic plants, will certainly smooth the risk of lignocellulosic ethanol, and may also improve ethanol yield on a per acre basis [19, 20]. Besides fuel ethanol or butanol, many other chemicals and value-added products may be produced from lignocellulosic biomass. Once the technologies for biorefineries are established and commercialized, a wide range of chemicals (e.g. olefins, plastics, solvents, many chemical intermediates) and biofuels (e.g. biogasoline, alcohols, biodiesel, JP-8, and FT liquids) could be produced from lignocellulosic biomass.

Fig. 2 Possible integration of different biorefineries

4 Technical Issues at Present
Currently, technologies for both biochemical and thermochemical conversions of lignocellulosic biomass are being investigated at research and small pilot plant levels. Demonstration facilities are being built with financial inputs from the DOE (Table 1). Irrespective of conversion technology, there are several feedstock production and logistics(transportation and storage) issues to be addressed to ensure a usable and consistent supply. For the biochemical conversion process, the major technical


Table 1 Current DOE funded commercial and demonstration scale cellulosic biofuel projects Capacity (MMG) Ethanol 11.4 Ethanol 19 Concentrated acid Biochemical Biochemical Gasification, catalytic reaction Solid fermentation Gasification + Fischer-Tropsch Biochemical + thermochemical Organolv-biochemical Gasification + Fischer-Tropsch DTU biogasol technology Fermentation Biochemical and Thermochemical Feedstock Conversion Technology Startup 2011 2009 2011 2011 2011 2010 2010 2010 2012 2010 2009 2010

Company

Project Location

Abengoa Bioenergy

Hugoton, KS

BlueFire Ethanol, Inc.

Corona, CA

Biofuels from Lignocellulosic Biomass

Mascoma Corp. POET Range Fuels corn cob paper mill and forest residues

Kinross, MI Emmetburg, IA Soperton, GA

Wheat straw, sorghum stubble, switchgrass; 700 t/d Green waste, wood waste, municipal cellulose waste; 700 t/d Wood chips and waste corn fiber, cob, stover; 842 t/d Wood residue, chips. 1200 t/d

Ecofin LLC Flambeau River Biofuels LLC ICM Ethanol 1.5 Corn fiber, corn stover, switchgrass and sorghum Soft and hard wood residue Mill residues, wood chips

Nicholasville, KY Park Falls, WI

Ethanol 40 Ethanol 30, Ethanol 40; methanol, 9 Ethanol 1; others Diesel 6

St. Joseph, MO

Lignol Innovations

NewPage

Ethanol 2.0; Lignin, furfural Diesel 5.5

Pacific Ethanol

Grand Junction, CO Wisconsin Rapids, WI Boardman, OR Ethanol 2.7; H2 , methane etc. Ethanol 2.2 Wheatstraw, corn stover and poplar residue Extracted hemicellulose during pulping Bagasse, wood waste energy crops, etc.

RSE Pulp and Chemical LLC Verenium Methanol 1.4

Old Town, ME

Jennings, LA

Dilute acid, biochemical

2009

Sources: https://www.energy.gov/media/ProjectOverview.pdf and https://www.energy.gov/media/Biofuels_Project_Locations.pdf 25




barriers are pretreatment technology, function and cost of hydrolytic enzymes, mitigation of inhibitors, and fermentation of C6 and C5 sugars [11]. For the thermochemical conversion process, the major technical barriers include understanding the kinetics of gasification, syngas clean-up techniques, and advanced catalyst development (selectivity and longevity) for the FT process [16].

5 Technical Details 5.1 Gasification of Lignocellulosic Biomass
5.1.1 Overview Gasification is a process where carbonaceous feedstocks react with oxygen and steam at elevated temperatures (500–1500a—Š C) and pressures (up to 33 bar or 480 psi) to yield a mixture of gasses. The mixed-gas product is called synthesis gas or “syngas,” consisting primarily of hydrogen (H2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), with varying amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), water (H2 O), methane (CH4 ), and other elements, depending on the feedstock, gasifier type and conditions [21]. 5.1.2 Gasification Process Depending on how heat is generated, gasification technology can be classified as either directly- or indirectly-heated gasification. For directly-heated gasification, pyrolysis and gasification reactions are conducted in a single vessel, withheat arising from feedstock combustion with oxygen. The syngas generated from this method has low heating values (4–6 MJ/m3 or 100–140 Btu/ft3 ). For indirectlyheated gasification, the heat-generating process (combustion of char) is separated from the pyrolysis and gasification reactions, which generates high heating value syngas (12–18 MJ/m3 or 300–400 Btu/ft3 ). Low heating value syngas is usually used to generate steam or electricity via a boiler or gas turbine, while high heating value syngas can also be used as a feedstock for subsequent conversion to fuels and chemicals [22]. According to the flow direction of the feedstock material and oxidant, gasifiers can basically be classified into five types (Table 2, Fig. 3). Although a portion of the feedstocks are converted to heat during gasification, conversion efficiencies of biomass to syngas are relatively high: e.g. 50–75% on weight basis [22]. This gasification efficiency is mainly due to the utilization of lignin and other organic substances, which cannot be used directly in acid or enzymatic hydrolyzing processes.

5.2 Syngas Generation
Biomass gasification is basically a two-step process, pyrolysis at lower temperature followed by gasification at a higher temperature. Pyrolysis is an endothermic process during which the biomass is decomposed into volatile materials (majority)


Biofuels from Lignocellulosic Biomass Table 2 Characteristics and types of gasifiers [21, 22] Flow Direction Gasifier Type Updraft fixed-bed Downdraft fixed-bed Biomass Down Down Oxidant Up Down Heating source and major features

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Bubblingfluidized-bed (BFB)

Up

Up

Circulating fluidized-bed (CFB)

Up

Up

Entrained flow-bed

Up

Up

Combustion of char; simple process but high tar in syngas, minimal feed size Partial combustion of volatiles; simple process, low tar in syngas, minimal feed size and limit ash content Partial combustion of volatiles and char; high CH4 , excellent mixing, heat transfer, and C conversion, extensively tested with biomass Partial combustion of volatiles and char; high CH4 , possible corrosion and attrition problem, not extensively tested with biomass Partial combustion of volatiles and tar; very low in tar, CO2 , low in CH4 , biomass has to be pulverized, fluid ash

Fig. 3 Illustrative structures of different types of gasifiers (modified from Dr. R. L. Bain’s 2004 presentation at DOE/NASCUGC Biomass and Solar Energy Workshop)


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and char. Volatiles and char from the pyrolysis process are further converted into gases during the gasification process. Although the exact chemical reactions and kinetics are complex and not yet fully-understood, biomass gasification includes the following:
(biomass volatiles/char) + O2 → CO2 (biomass volatiles/char) + O2 → CO (biomass volatiles/char) + H2 → CH4 CO + H2 O → CO2 + H2 CO + 3H2 → CH4 + H2 O (biomass volatiles/char) + H2 O → CO + H2 (biomass volatiles/char) + CO2 → 2CO

(1) Combustion (2) Partial oxidation (3) Methanation (4) Water-gas shift (5) CO methanation (6) Steam-carbon reaction (7) Boudouard reaction

The major components of typical syngas generated from wood are listed in Table 3, and itis evident that output variation occurs, even in the same type of gasifier as gasification conditions (temperature, pressure, O2, and steam levels) typically impact the syngas composition.

5.3 Liquid Fuels – FT Liquids (Diesel), Ethanol or Butanol, Chemicals
Technically, a variety of different liquid fuels and chemicals can be made from high quality syngas (Fig. 4). The production of liquid fuel, either a thermochemicalcatalyzed conversion or a microbial fermentation process (under development),

Fig. 4 A diversity of chemicals can be produced from syngas (from page 3 of Drs. Spath and Dayton’s 2003 NREL Technical Report, NREL/TP-510-34929, with modification)


Table 3 Major components of wood syngas by direct and indirect heated BFB and CFB SEI BFB Wood 12.7 15.5 15.9 dry 5.72 2.27 – 47.9 0.8 5.6 11.0 16.0 10.5 12.0 (in C2+) 6.5 (in C2+) 44 0.7 5.0 15–17 21–22 10–11 dry 5–6 – – 46–47 0.7 7.5 14.9 46.5 14.6 Dry 17.8 6.2 – 0 0.3 18.0 Wood Wood Wood CFB CFB CFB-indirect Sydkraft Foster Wheeler BCL/FERCO MTCI BFB-indirect Pulp 43.3 9.22 28.1 5.57 4.73 9.03 Scrubbed 0 4.6 16.7

EPI

GTI

Type

BFB

BFB

Biofuels from Lignocellulosic Biomass

Feedstock

Wood

Wood

H2 CO CO2 H2 O CH4 C2+ Tars N2 H2 /CO ratio HV (MJ/m3 )

5.8 17.5 15.8 dry 4.65 2.58 – 51.9 0.3 5.6

14.8 11.7 22.4 dry 10.8 0.13 0.27 40.3 1.6 13.0

Data source [21]. EPI: Energy Products of Idaho, GTI: Gas Technology Institute, SEI: Southern Electric International, BCL/FERCO: Battelle Columbus Laboratory/ Future Energy Resources Corporation, MTCI: Manufacturing and TechnologyConversion International.

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may be used to convert syngas into liquid fuels (methanol, ethanol, gasoline, and FT diesel). The catalytic conversion of syngas to ethanol can occur under hightemperature and high-pressure conditions ( 250a—Š C, 60–100 atm) with a molar ratio of H2 to CO at 2–3:1. However, most syngas (Table 3) does not contain such a high H2 /CO ratio. Also, the catalysis reaction is not specific, resulting in a final mixture of methanol, ethanol, some other higher alcohols, and reactant gases. Considerable technical progress is required to generate ethanol from syngas at a viable commercial scale and various projects continue to explore possible options. For example, Range Fuels in Georgia (Table 1 is in the process of building a 20 million gallon pilot plant to evaluate using this approach for lignocellulose to ethanol conversion. Syngas can also be converted into gasoline or diesel through the so called MTG (methanol-to-gasoline) or the more common FT process. While these methods have been utilized for many years in the fossil fuel industry (coal or natural gas feedstocks), the utilization of lignocellulosic biomass is not yet viewed as being commercial [23]. Two DOE-funded companies (Table 1) are in the process of building demonstration scale plants to further explore the feasibility of the gasification-FT process for biofuel production. In the microbial fermentation process, anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium ljungdahlii are used to convert cleaned syngas into ethanol [24]. Reactions involved in the biological conversionprocess are as the follows: CO + 3H2 O → C2 H5 OH + 4CO2 6H2 +2CO2 → C2 H5 OH + 3H2 O In general, conditions for microbial conversion of syngas to ethanol are mild and specific, and the H2 :CO ratio is not critical. However, microbial tolerance to ethanol concentration in the fermentation broth is currently a limitation. Several public and private R&D projects are underway to address the issue (e.g. https://www.coskata.com; https://www.ineosbio.com).

6 Biochemical Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass 6.1 Overview
Theoretically, the basic process for biochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into ethanol or other biofuels is relatively straightforward. First, the lignocellulosic matrix must be treated to gain access to and/or separate the main components: lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicelluloses) are then hydrolyzed to sugars, which are fermented to ethanol. This hydrolytic conversion process for lignocellulosic biomass contributes to the technical barriers that currently limit commercial operations. The fermentation process for ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass is also more


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complex than for corn-based ethanol production. Hydrolysates of lignocellulosic biomass typically contain significant amounts of pentoses (e.g. xylose and arabinose). These C5 sugars are not readily fermented to ethanol by the commonly-used yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Efficiently converting both glucose and pentoses (xylose and arabinose) into ethanol or other biofuels andat reasonably high concentrations (8–12%) is another challenge for the fermentation microorganisms.

6.2 Pretreatment Methods
Many pretreatment processes have been tested for the capability to facilitate lignocellulosic biomass component separation and to aid in subsequent access for the hydrolytic enzymes [25, 26]. The more extensively studied methods are listed in Table 4, which includes AFEX (ammonia fiber explosion) and ARP (ammonia recycle percolation) [27, 28], lime [29], organosolv [30], liquid hot water, ionic liquid [31], dilute acid and steam explosion [32, 33], and enzyme treatment [34]. Additional information on pretreatments is available from Taherzadeh and Karimi [35] and Jorgensen, Kristensen, and Felby [27].
Table 4 Features of some pretreatment processes Digestibility Xylose of cellulose yield (%) (%) 75–90 50% solid hemicelluloses and cellulose, decrystalize cellulose Lime 0.1 g CaO/g biomass, Remove lignin 55a—Š C a few weeks, 20–40% solid Alkaline 1–7.5% H2 O2 , pH 11.5, Solublize and oxidize peroxide 30–85a—Š C 45 min–24 h; lignin 15% solid Organosolv Methanol, ethanol, acetone Remove of lignin and etc. +90

90 80–90 >80–90

>90

>90

>90

>95

>70

90–100


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An effective practical pretreatment process should meet the following standards for use in future commercial facilities: (a) allow excellent cellulose digestibility by commercial cellulases, (b) good recoveries of cellulose and pentoses from hemicelluloses, (c) minimal or no microbial inhibitory by-products, (d) good separation of lignin, (e) be easilymanaged at large volumes, (f) be relatively inexpensive (capex and opex), (g) not require large energy inputs, and (h) have environmentally acceptable features. Published economic analysis has suggested that the MESP (minimal ethanol selling price) for cellulosic ethanol from corn stover, using different pretreatment technologies, ranges from $1.41/gallon for the AFEX process to $1.7/gallon for hot water treated corn stover [36]. More recently, Sendich et al. [37] indicated that the MESP for AFEX treated corn stover could be as low as $0.81/gallon due to reduced ammonia concentration and a simplified ammonia recycle process. However, we believe the assumptions used are perhaps overly-optimistic. For example, a feedstock cost of $30/ton is very low, especially given the alternative nutrient and soil texture improvement values for corn stover. More recently, the DOE reported a 2007 cellulosic MESP of $2.43/gallon [38]. In any case, and despite many years of R&D, it is difficult to validate the assumptions since none of the conversion processes have been evaluated at practical scale.

6.3 Cellulose Hydrolysis
Three methods are possible for hydrolyzing cellulose into glucose (C6 sugar for fermentation): 1. dilute acid hydrolysis (90% glucose yield), which has been used in Japan and will be evaluated in a DOE-funded pilot facility (Table 1); and 3. enzymatic hydrolysis (cellulase mixture, 50a—Š C several days, 75–95% glucose yield). The efficient enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose by cellulases requires a coordinated and synergistic action of three groups of cellulases:endoglucanase (EG, E.C. 3.2.1.4), exoglucanases like cellodextrinase (E.C. 3.2.1.74) and cellobiohydrolase (CBH, E. C. 3.2.1.91), and β-glucosidase (BG, E. C. 3.2.1.21). EGs and CBHs act on insoluble cellulose molecules [39]. EGs randomly act internally on the amorphous regions of a cellulose polymer chain and generate oligosaccharides of various lengths and additional free ends (reducing and non-reducing ends) for CBH action. CBHs usually hydrolyze both amorphous and crystalline cellulose and cellooligosaccharide chains from the non-reducing ends in a sequential way with cellobiose as the major product, but some CBHs can hydrolyze cellulose chains from both reducing and non-reducing ends [40–42]. The hydrolysis products of these two groups of enzymes include cellodextrins, cellotriose, cellobiose, and glucose. βglucosidases hydrolyze soluble cellodextrins and cellobiose into glucose from the non-reducing end and remove the product feedback inhibitory effect of cellobiose on EG and CBH (Fig. 5 ).


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Fig. 5 Effects of pretreatment on different components in biomass and actions of non-complexed cellulases on celluloses [39, 42]

Factors impacting the activity of cellulases include enzyme source (e.g. organisms and producing conditions), concentration, and combinations. The normal enzyme dose for cellulose hydrolysis study is 10–60 FPU per gram of dry cellulose or glucan; glucanases to β-glucosidase ratio is approximately 1.75–2.0 IU of βglucosidase for each FPU of glucanase used [29]. Most commercial glucanases are produced byTrichoderma reseii and the β-glucosidase is typically from Aspergillus niger [43]. Under research conditions, the reported digestibility or the conversion yield of cellulose from pretreated lignocellulose can be high (Table 4). However, actual glucose yield may vary greatly depending on the type of biomass, method/condition of pretreatment, cellulases (composition, source, and dose), solid to liquid ratio of the hydrolysis mixture, and other unspecified factors. The cellulose digestibility of corn stover and corn fiber can reach >90% following dilute acid or liquid hot water pretreatment [44], while the digestibility of rice hulls after similar pretreatment was about 50% [45]. Similar low digestibility results were obtained on dilute acid pretreated sorghum stubble in our lab (unpublished data). The variable digestibility of different biomass sources following dilute acid pretreatment may be an indication that this particular pretreatment is not universally effective. Currently, all the reported results for AFEX [44] and alkaline peroxide [44, 46] treated biomass sources showed consistently high cellulose recovery, and high digestibility, even at lower enzyme concentrations and shorter incubation time (48 h vs normal 96 h) [47] . Digestibility, or glucose yield, is high when cellulose load is low (1–3% cellulose load) in the hydrolysis system. Glucose yield from pretreated biomass typically increases as enzyme load increases [47, 48, 49], while digestibility decreases as the cellulose load increases [48, 50]. We are unaware of any reports of >20% cellulose load with highdigestibility. Starch-based ethanol production involves starch loadings of 20–25% or higher, that results in finished beers with ethanol concentration around 10–12% (w/v). Most lignocellulosic ethanol fermentation studies have used hydrolysates with 3–10% cellulose load, which resulted in a finished mash with 3–5% (V/V) ethanol. Additional research is required to improve the


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lignocellulose situation. Some non-cellulolytic enzymes (e.g. ferulic acid esterases and various xylanases) have been studied as pretreatment agents and showed promising results in increasing glucose yield from lignocellulose [51]. Since enzyme cost is a large contributor to the total production cost for lignocellulosic ethanol [30, 44], considerable research has been undertaken in attempts to increase the efficiency and reduce the cost of enzymes. Addition of protein (bovine albumen) and other additives (Tween 20 or 80, polyethylene glycerol, etc.) that reduce the affinity between cellulases and lignin all improve the efficiency of cellulose hydrolysis [27]. A recycling process using an ultrafiltration membrane to separate hydrolyzed glucose showed that cellulases could be re-used up to 3 times for pretreated low lignin biomass, or until 50% of the cellulases were bound on accumulated lignin [48]. To help lower enzyme costs and possibly improve effectiveness, a research strategy has been developed to genetically-engineer biomass to express transgenic endocellulases. Microbial cellulose transgenes have been expressed in several crops: tobacco, potato, tomato, alfalfa, rice, maize,and barley [52–54]. Endoglucanase 1 (E1) concentration in some transgenic experiments has reached 1% (corn stover) [55] to 5% (rice straw) [54] of total soluble proteins. In some cases, both treated and non-treated E1 engineered biomass showed higher digestibility than biomass of their wild counterparts. Whether transgenic expression of appropriate enzymes is a viable long-term strategy when used for large-scale production remains under investigation.

6.4 Fermentation (Including SSF and C5 and C6)
For large-scale, economically viable use of lignocellulose there will be two input streams of sugars, one from hydrolysis of pretreated cellulose (C6 sugars such as glucose) and one from the hydrolysis of pretreated hemicellulose (C5 sugars such as xylose) since the common fermentation yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) can only utilize C6 sugars, an additional technology is required for lignocellulose compared to starch or sucrose based ethanol production. The fermenting process for lignocellulosic ethanol production will include either two fermentation processes (S. cerevisiae for glucose and bacteria or other yeast for pentoses) or one C5 and C6 co-fermentation process (e.g. genetically-engineered microorganisms with specifically-designed metabolic pathways). To-date, several microbial species have been engineered to ferment both glucose and pentoses, including E. coli, Zymomonas mobilis, Pichia stipitis, Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum and S. cerevisiae [56–58]. While these metabolically-engineered microbes show C6 and C5 fermentation, the ethanol yields have been toolow for commercial applications [57]. In addition, many engineered organisms are susceptible to inhibitory compounds generated during pretreatment, and are not as tolerant to high ethanol concentration as the typical S. cerevisiae strains. Research continues to explore the possibilities for economic fermentation of both C6 and C5 sugars.


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6.5 Butanol and Other Chemicals
Once hemicelluloses and celluloses in biomass feedstock have been hydrolyzed, the sugar “platform” can be utilized to generate a range of chemicals, including other fuels such as butanol [59]. Butanol has several advantages over ethanol as an alternative fuel (but not as an oxygenate) and may be a better choice for the large volume liquid transport fuel market. However, if other chemicals are produced in an ethanol plant, the final product separation process (distillation and dehydration) would be problematical. Separate down-stream production paths will be required in future biorefineries to accommodate the potential product flows, which may result in different designs and configurations [15].

6.6 Heat (Lignin
The main component remaining in the solid residues following cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolysis to sugars is lignin (15–20% of the biomass feedstock) which has a heating value just slightly less than coal ( 25 GJ/ton vs 28 GJ/ton for coal). Therefore, lignin could be used as feedstock for co-firing, or gasification, in an integrated biorefinery to generate heat and electricity. Lignin, and associated phenolic compounds, can also be used aschemical intermediates, however, this market volume is probably limited. The main utilization will probably be for heat and electricity: both for internal use in the biorefinery and perhaps to generate surplus electricity that could be sold back to the grid, further capturing the economic benefit [60].

7 Current Outcome of Technological Implementation 7.1 Current Technology and Commercialization
For over 20 years, a considerable research effort has been made to overcome the technical and economic barriers that currently limit the use of lignocellulosic biomass. Most recently, the DOE has funded the development of several lignocellulosic biofuel facilities that will help further define the parameters for potential success. Some aspects of possible systems, such as concentrated acid hydrolysis, dilute acid and steam explosion pretreatment, are relatively well understood at the research level and will benefit from pilot-scale testing. Other aspects, such as fermentation inhibitors and fermentation of C5/C6 sugars, require further research to create sufficient improvements for commercial testing. Some technologies, such as biomass gasification, syngas conversion to biofuels by either fermentation or FT process, have been tested at a pilot scale and are ready for further scale-up and integration testing. This is a crucial period of time for lignocellulosic biofuel development: success with the current pilot scale operations will drive the required


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investment for commercial scale, while poor results in the next 2–3 years may place a prohibitiverestriction on future investment.

7.2 Major Industries and Technology Providers
Currently, over a dozen companies have demonstrated strong interest in exploring advanced R&D and/or pilot-scale facilities, with a view to building future commercial-scale plants. The following are a few examples, showing the range of locations, technologies, and feedstocks: Abengoa Bioenergy, Inc. (https://www.abengoabioenergy.com) began to build the world’s first commercial lignocellulosic ethanol plant in Babilafuente (Salamanca), Spain in 2005. With $76 million in funding from the DOE, the company is planning to build a lignocellulosic ethanol plant in Kansas by 2011, which will evaluate the use of corn stover, wheat straw, and other agricultural biomass. BlueFire Ethanol, Inc. (https://www.bluefireethanol.com) recently received DOE funding of $80 million to build a 19 million gallons per year lignocellulosic ethanol plant in California. They plan to use urban trash (post-sorted MSW), rice straw, wood waste, and other agricultural residues as feedstock, combined with a concentrated acid process. Coskata, Inc. (https://www.coskata.com) is exploring the integration of thermochemical and biochemical conversions: syngas is generated by gasification of lignocellulosic biomass and then converted into ethanol from the gas phase by anaerobic fermentation [61]. The company claims this technology can produce more than 100 gallons of ethanol per dry metric ton of feedstock with production cost of less than $1/gallon. There is no indication of when such numbers will be achieved in a practical large scaleoperation. DuPont Danisco Cellulosic Ethanol LLC. (https://www.ddce.com) is a jointventure between DuPont and Genencor (a subsidiary of Danisco). The company is cooperated with University of Tennessee to build a pilot lignocellulosic ethanol facility (PDU, 0.25 MG/y) in Tennessee by 2009. The plan is to combine DuPont’s proprietary mild alkaline pretreatment and fermentation technologies with Genencor’s enzymatic hydrolysis methods to convert corn stover and sugarcane bagasse into ethanol. Etek Etanolteknik AB (https://www.sekab.com/) is located in Sweden and has set-up a pilot lignocellulosic ethanol plant with a capacity of about 400–500 L of ethanol/day ( 2 ton dry substance/day). The plant has been functional since 2004, using the two-step dilute-acid hydrolysis process in combination with enzymatic hydrolysis. Feedstocks include cereal straws, organic waste, wood clippings, or forestry residues. Iogen Co. (https://www.iogen.ca/) is located in Canada and has more than a decade of experience in ethanol production from lignocellulosic materials. The company currently runs a demonstration lignocellulosic ethanol plant using a modified steam-explosion pretreatment technology (dilute acid) and enzymatic hydrolysis,


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with an annual capacity of 1 million gallons of ethanol. Feedstock includes wheat straw, barley straw, corn stover, and waste wood [62]. Mascoma Corporation (https://www.mascoma.com) is located in Massachusetts and was founded around the key technology of genetically-engineered bacteria that are capable of fermentingboth hexoses and pentoses into ethanol. The company has recently raised $30 million and is building a 1.5–2.0 million gallon/year demonstration level lignocellulosic ethanol plant. Poet (https://www.poetenergy.com) is one of the largest corn-based ethanol producers. With the help of an $80 million DOE grant, the company is expanding one of its plants in Iowa to produce 125 million gallons/year, of which 25 million gallons will be from lignocellulose (corn cobs and/or corn kernel fiber). Poet is currently researching possible methods for the collection and storage of corn cobs and the expanded facilities are expected to be operational by 2011. Ranger Fuels (https://www.rangefuels.com/home) has began construction of a demonstration 20 million gallons/year lignocellulosic ethanol plant in Georgia (to be commissioned in 2009). The plant will use a thermochemical process (gasification and catalyst transformation) to turn wood, grasses, corn stover, and other available agricultural biomass into fuel ethanol. Verenium (https://www.verenium.com/) was created by the merger of the former Celunol and Diversa companies. With DOE funding of $40 million, the company is in the process of building a 1.4 million gallon/year demonstration plant at Louisiana. The feedstock will include sugarcane bagasse, hard wood, rice hulls, and other agricultural residues. ZeaChem, Inc. (https://www.zeachem.com/) has a technology that biologically transforms hemicellulose and cellulose into acetic acid. The acetic acid is then hydrogenated in a thermochemical process using hydrogen produced from gasification oflignin, to produce ethanol. Since no carbon dioxide is released during the biochemical conversion process, this process has a higher ethanol yield (up to 160 gallons/dry ton biomass) compared to the hydrolytic methods [63]. The plan is to build a 1.5 million gallon per year plant in Oregon with operational start-up in late 2009.

8 Summary
Global energy consumption will continue to increase, even as the reserves of easily available fossil fuels decline. Until alternative energy sources are developed for transportation, liquid fuels will remain in high demand. Crude oil production will be unable to meet future demands at affordable prices and fuels from renewable feedstocks will play a key role in contributing to the supply of liquid transport fuels. Lignocellulose is a natural abundant material created by plants from sunlight, nutrients, and CO2 capture. The potential volume of lignocellulose that can be theoretically produced and harvested is considerable and sufficient to make a major contribution to liquid transport fuel volume. In practice, there are several major challenges to lignocellulosic biomass production, collection, and storage that were not


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addressed in this chapter but are the focus of research in many projects. Ultimately, the real cost of feedstock delivered to the conversion facility will be a major factor determining the magnitude of success for lignocellulosic biomass. Potential output products could include ethanol, butanol, biogasoline, FT liquids, and a range of chemical intermediates. Reaching this potential in aneconomically acceptable manner is a challenge, and requires an improved ability to convert the lignocellulosic feedstock to a useable fuel. After more than two decades of intensive R&D, several technologies have been evaluated for biofuel production at the laboratory level. A few are now at the stage of advanced testing and pilot-scale evaluations. Presently, the challenges facing commercial conversion are such that no one technology has an absolute advantage over the others. The approach of thermochemical pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis followed by microbial fermentation has been the most extensively studied. The remaining challenges for this approach include further lowering pretreatment cost, improving hydrolysis efficiency and cost of cellulases (and hemicellulases), and improving the performance of fermentation organisms. The approach of thermochemical gasification combined with FT catalytic conversion has also been widely explored and may be promising under the appropriate conditions. The gasification approach would benefit from improved gasification efficiency, easier syngas cleanup, and better FT factors such as catalyst selectivity and longevity. In some projects, various combinations (thermochemical front + biochemical, biochemical front + thermochemical) have been evaluated. For economic operation in an integrated biorefinery, it may be that such combinations of approaches will be required and that the combination utilized will depend on the feedstock, the location, the desired product stream, the degree of environmental impact, and the level of investmentavailable. It is expected that the best technologies for specific challenges will be selected and implemented over the next 5–10 years and that the definitive answer on the size of the contribution from lignocellulosic biomass will become evident during that time.

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